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THE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF NIGERIAN CITIES Lead Paper developed in collaboration with Mr Idu Egbenta and Dr Godfrey Udoh, delivered by:
E. OSITA OKOLI (B. Sc., FNIVS,RSV, SCV)
2nd Vice-President, Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors & Valuers (NIESV)
At The NIESV Annual Conference held at The TRANSCORP HILTON Hotel, ABUJA,
APRIL 7-13, 2008.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mankind may be classified into two broad categories based on their activities in their surroundings. There are those who go about shaping their environment to suit their needs and those who accept the state of their environment as it exists. This paper is concerned with those that alter the face of their environment to meet their needs. The biblical story of creation shows that God planted a garden where Adam and Eve settled-an indication that the natural state of the earth can be altered to suit man’s need. We also saw how the sons of Adam and Eve (Cain and Abel) started separating Land Use. Abel was an animal keeper and Cain a farmer. Since farming required a more settled culture, Cain was able to build a town called Enoch , named after his son. Enoch become the first city according to the biblical story.
History has it that civilization started in the river valley areas such as River Nile which gave rise to present-day Egypt, with Alexandra, one of the old cities, still striving. Rivers Tigris and Euphrates gave rise to Mesopotamia, Babylon and in other areas like Greece , city- states in which emerged the personality of the first known town planner, Hippodamus of Miletus . There were other great river valleys of China, India and the Americas.
Cities have long been considered the hallmark of human civilizations, in that we know our past civilizations mostly from the cities they built. To this extent, our cities tell the story of our societies-how they came to be, and the direction(s) in which they may be headed.
This paper discusses the historical development of Nigerian cities, the conceptual framework of cities, the importance of the city in the world economy and the problems facing cities. It further examines the development parameters of modern cities and outlines the roles of Estate Surveyors and Valuers in the Development and Management of Nigerian cities.
1.1 What is a City?
A City is an urban area. It is differentiated from a town, village, and hamlet in terms of size, population, density, importance or legal status. UNESCO defined a City in common parlance as a large town. In the urban planning context city is a town with a population of one hundred thousand or more. In other words, a City is a place where a large number of people live in close proximity to each other; more formally, a place incorporated as a city and therefore having specific political and administrative functions. A City usually consists of residential, industrial and business areas together with administrative functions, which may relate to a wider geographical area. In addition, a city provides specialised services such as Teaching hospital, University, Air and Sea ports and is usually the economic nerve- centre of surrounding towns and an engine of a region. A large share of a city’s area is generally taken up by houses, roads, and streets. In these regards, many towns in Nigeria such as Ibadan, Lagos, Abeokuta, Benin, Enugu, Port Harcourt, Abuja, Kaduna, Kano and many others can be regarded as cities. Lakes and rivers may be the only undeveloped areas within the city.
2.0 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIAN CITIES
The historical development of Nigerian cities is traced from the Pre-Colonial administration, from the Hausa-Fulani settlements in the north through the Yoruba settlements in the west to the lgbo settlements in the east for the sake of convenience. The Post-colonial administration is also discussed to enable us see the impact the Colonial administration had on our cities.
2.1 Pre-Colonial Nigeria cities
The history of Nigeria cities dates back to the pre-historic age. The area presently known as Nigeria was populated mostly by the nomadic tribes who grazed their cattle and cultivated crops. From 800 BC the culture of the Noks came into existence. In the history of Nigeria, the Noks were the most well-known ancient settlers within the region. They started the trend of making bronze and terracotta sculptures.
In the northern part of the country, Kano and Katsina have recorded history which dates back to around AD 999. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa. The Arab travellers described the Hausa towns such as Kano, Zaria and Katsina as antiquity (Lloyd 1973), meaning that these cities had existed before their arrival. In other words, prior to the advent of the Colonial administration in Nigeria, there were existing, big cities in Northern Nigeria which formed the Hausa-Fulani settlements.
Most of the cities were trade routes, market centres serving the predominantly rural areas, administrative areas dominated by Fulani aristocracy and religious centres. These cities have much in common with towns of the early medieval period. The major characteristics of these cities were that there were walled and gated owing to the constant threat of warfare.
The basic development was organic (unrefined). At the household level,, the buildings were circular-a testimonial to their contact with the Arabic mode of development. These cities expressed leadership status. For instance the most powerful town will have the highest wall; remains of these walls are still found in Kano today. The locations of economic, social and political activities were prominent attributes of these cities. A typical city-centre will have the palace, mosque, alkali court and open space located at the centre of the city. Development radiated from the city centre outwards. The arrangements showed proper land use conformity. The palace, mosque and the court served as public and administrative areas while the open spaces served as arena for social and cultural functions.
During the early 11th century many ethnic groups migrated from other countries to the mainland of Nigeria. In the Benin and Oyo regions of Nigeria, kingdoms had started growing. Famous architectural and historical monuments had been built. The Portuguese who visited Benin Kingdom were astounded and concluded that the city existed about two centuries before their arrival (Lloyd 1973). The Yoruba towns are in contrast much larger than the Hausa-Fulani towns. However the attack by the Fulani from the north of the country (during the Usman Dan Fodio Jihad of the 19th century) destroyed many of the cities. Most of the cities were located on or near rock eminences which, suggest a need for defence. Most Yoruba towns were enclosed by high walls and ditches, broken by the gate on the main routes radiating from the central market place (which was usually the site of the of the regents palace). This spatial arrangement emphasized the palace, open space, shrine and sacred groves and market as focal points of the cities. Yoruba settlements were regarded by the colonialists as ‘urban’ because of the contributions of these cities to the economic development of the region. The most notable of them were Ibadan, Oyo, Lagos, Ile-Ife and Abeokuta.
Several factors facilitated the development of cities in the western part of Nigeria. One of these is kingship (the Oba was the political head). The Oba had the largest compound in the town. Other factors were high population density, permanent workplace of craftsmen (weavers, blacksmiths etc), and long-distance trade routes.
The situation in the eastern part of the country was different from the well-developed settlements like Kano and Ibadan, as a result of the social structure and organization prevalent in the East. It has been suggested that the oldest Igbo town in pre-colonial Nigeria could have been Asaba and Owerri but history acknowledges the existence of developed civilizations such as Arochukwu, Nri, Igbo-Ukwu, etc. The main features of the Igbo and Eastern towns were linear and scattered settlements found in places like present-day Abakaliki and Nsukka, to the north. In the southern part, were clustered and nucleated settlements like Owerri, Onitsha, Umuahia and Calabar. The land use patterns in these cities comprised in households (compound), village lands, open spaces or squares (for meetings, markets recreation and public entertainment) and sacred groves or forests for religious activities. Around each household, were walls or fences or hedges in aid of defence against external aggression. Roads radiated from the square to each compound. Several factors facilitated the development of the pre-colonial cities in the East. These include the fact that there were no central administrations as in the Obas and Emirs in the west and north respectively. Politically , the Igbo established republican societies where decisions are collectively taken while social organization was based on titular hierarchy like the age grades, ‘Nze na Ozo’ etc.
Post-colonial Nigerian Cities
The economic development of 20th century Nigeria has produced new cities ,catalyzed by the advent of the Colonial administration and immigrants from rural areas.
To the north emerged Kaduna, as the capital of northern Nigeria, from the super-imposition of colonial government on the local people in the form of ‘Indirect Rule.’ The result of this arrangement saw the emergence of the dual city structure: Old Town (Tudun Wada) and New Town (Sabon Gari). The dual city phenomenon arose from the Hausa emphasis on segregating people by race, origin and religion. This arrangement was suitable to the British system of separation of land uses. The Sabon Gari was developed to quarter non-moslems who provide labour and manpower for the colonial masters as well as commercial zones for the trading companies.
The situation was quite different in the west where the system of administration was ‘Direct Rule’ As a result there was direct imposition of a new colonial physical structure on the existing local town pattern resulting in the merging of the new and old towns. The consequence is that new and old towns became congested because the colonial government built on the existing open spaces. This is why many cities in the western part of the country such as Lagos, Ibadan Ile-Ife, Abeokuta are typified by over-crowding and congestion.
In the eastern part there was no city of note. The result is that when the colonialists came they set up towns based on their needs for commerce and industry such as Enugu (for coal mining and administration); Onitsha and Aba (for commerce); Calabar (transportation and administration); and Port Harcourt (transportation-seaport, industry and commerce).
The historical development of Nigeria cities shows that our cities were functional prior to ‘Independence.’ They were developed on the basis of need and conformity with nature.
3.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF CITIES
This section examines some concepts that are often associated with cities. We would limit our discussion to Megacity, Sustainable City and City Dynamics.
3.1 Megacity Concept
A Mega City is usually defined as a recognized metropolitan area with a total population in excess of 10 million people. Some definitions also set a minimum population density (at least 2,000 persons per square kilometre). A mega city can be a single metropolitan area or two or more metropolitan areas that merging into one another. This is why Lagos can be regarded as a mega city. Mega city is characterised by: more and better employment opportunities (than are available in smaller cities); enhanced availability of food and water supply; enhanced availability of energy, education and health facilities; better transportation systems to tackle the high traffic congestion; wider array of leisure facilities; higher environmental problems, crime rates and housing problems (with corresponding higher rents and prices).
3.2 Sustainable City
The sustainability of a city refers to its ability to persist through time. That is to endure into the future. It has been observed that decision- making processes about cities are unsustainable on two counts: first, excessive, exclusive attention is given to economic factors while effectively ignoring equally vital ecological and social factors; second, these processes (being linked to money, interest rates and discounting), unduly prioritize the present over the future. In contrast, multi-perspective, multi-criteria decision- making processes reflect lone-term as well as immediate concerns, in a more sustainable system.
3.3 City Dynamics
Urban dynamics analyzes Land Use change in urban environments in order to provide a historical perspective within the city. Urban Dynamics deals with assessment of the spatial patterns, rates, correlation, trends, and impacts of Land Use change. The Greek architect, Doxiader who developed the idea of Dynapolis after industrial revolution argued that cities grow and change hence provision must be made for growth and change. The dynamism of cities comes from their crucial role as concentrations of power, wealth, and people. Cities are a physical experience, a social experience, and a dynamic experience. Most major metropolitan areas face the growing challenges of urban sprawl, loss of natural vegetation and open space, and a general decline in the extent and connectivity of wetlands and wildlife habitats. The public identifies and reacts to these problems when they see residential and commercial development replacing undeveloped land around them.
However, the dynamics of a city is assessed on the basis of socio-economic indices, innovation, social welfare and environmental qualities. The indicators used to assess socio-economic dynamism are: a) population dynamics; b) income levels; c) local labour markets; d) main economic functions; e) main features of agricultural, industrial and tourism sectors; f) level of sub-urbanization; g) the development of transport and communication systems; h) land prices and other economic activities.
As for innovation, indicators include: a) qualified human resources for innovation; b) innovative effort; c) innovation absorption ability; d) services and infrastructure for innovation and e) environmental innovation.
The indicators used to assess social welfare and environmental quality are: a) population features like ageing, presence of foreign populations and level of literacy; b) availability or basic resources (like access time to hospitals), distribution of primary schools and rate of substandard housing and c) environmental quality (mainly water quality, availability, and rate of soils ‘sealed’ by roads, urbanization or mining activity).
It is very important to see the thinking and behaviour of urban dwellers, which gave rise to City Dynamics. Diabate, (2007) argued that city dwellers push for a vision of their city- a vision that is rarely carried out as governments are hardly capable of implementing their visions. The implication is that the city dweller believes that, if you don’t occupy the street, you don’t sell; if you don’t sell, you don’t eat; and if you don’t eat, you can’t expect the health care system to care for you. So you occupy the sidewalk, whether or not this fits within the city plan. In this regard, Tiwari, (2006) argued that the growth of future cities depends upon how well we are able to plan for the ‘unplanned’. He stresses that policy makers seem to be ignorant of the positive impact of street vendors on the social life of a city. The availability of work options on the street provides a positive outlet for employment and earning an honest livelihood to a large section of the population that is poor but with high entrepreneurial skills. Their presence makes streets relatively crime-free and safer for women, children and older people. Cities that have a large number of street vendors like in Lagos seem to be far safer than those that do not, like Abuja. They also provide cheap and better tasting food than those sold at most restaurants. For instance, a N 150 plate of food at the road side may cost N 3,000 at Transcorp Hilton Hotel, Abuja or Golden Gate Restaurant, Ikoyi, Lagos. A careful analysis of the location of vendors, their numbers at each location and the type of services provided clearly shows that they are needed in our cities since they work under completely ‘free market’ principles. Permitting vendors at logical places and planning spaces for them requires a careful understanding of the dynamics and requirements of street vendors.
4.0 CITIES AND THE WORLD ECONOMY
The World Economy is evaluated based on human economic activities. Major human economic activities are carried out within cities. The history of human civilization shows that cities play an important role in the development of the World Economy. This is because, cities are the engines of innovation, growth, manufacturing, import and export in a globalized economy.
Globalization is a set of processes leading to the integration of economic, cultural, political, and social systems across geographical boundaries. It refers to the increasing economic integration and interdependence of countries. Economic globalization is all about trade liberalization (the increased circulation of goods) and financial liberalization (the expanded circulation of capital). Peter Taylor (2004) has shown that globalization is as an attempt to understand cities and spatial arrangements in the context of economic restructuring and the international division of labour. Globalization, with the rise of complex communications technology shows a network of relative dominance in cities that are central nodes in networks of exchange relative to those constituted by flow of people, material goods, and knowledge. Thus, cities are regarded as “geographies of centrality.” Cities have contributed immensely to the development of the world economy in several ways:
4.1 High Population
Cities are made up of high populations of people. For instance, in 2007, some Chinese cities like Shanghai had 15 million people; Hong Kong, 7.2 million; Indian cities like Delhi 15.8 million, Calcuta 14.8 million and Lagos 9 million people (?). High population means lower
cost per household and per enterprise for the provision of facilities such as water, waste disposal, health care etc.
4.2 Cities have High Investment Potential.
The dynamism of cities is linked to enormous investments in infrastructure. Housing construction is a particularly sound investment because income generated from housing projects stimulates private growth. Building houses requires materials, transportation, marketing, and productive labour, all of which produce a multiplier effect; for every Naira invested in home construction, one Naira is added to the national income of a country and the world at large. The old Chinese saying is that “if you want to be rich, you must first build roads.” Roads and allied infrastructure (bridges, tunnels, ports, etc constitute the backbone of development and the skeletons of cities. One may add that Housing is the flesh that binds up the city and gives it that status and beauty. Dr. Hundsalz once said that “countries that can take advantage of the increased urban population by creating jobs and stimulating their economies will not only survive massive global urbanization, but prosper from it.”
4.3Cities offer Low Absolute Poverty
Cities are much better for the poor. Monetary or income poverty diminishes regularly in many cities in the world. For example in China, the annual per capita income of municipalities averages USD 200. The poverty of living conditions has diminished in China. Housing poverty is visible to about 10 to 15% in China. We are aware that the vicious cycle of poverty increasing homelessness which perpetuates poverty. This can only be broken in cities because cities have free or inexpensive social services that give the poor a place to start. Thus cities remain the engines of social, economic and environmental development of a country and will continue to provide the greatest opportunity for the poor. Urban Poor are three to ten times better off economically than the rural Poor.
4.4 Efficient Transportation System
Cities are usually marked by rapid expansion, efficient transportation system (rail, water and road), capital markets and mortgage finance. This serves as a catalyst for increased production of housing by public and private developers.
4.5 Technological Advancement
There is fast development of technological competencies, mostly among the young generation, in cities. For instance, Chinese are viewed as a real danger by industrialized countries because of the numbers of engineers and technicians put so far on the domestic markets. Chinese construction companies are winning construction contracts all over the world, including Nigeria. Not many Nigerian companies have won contracts in other countries. Shanghai, one of the cities in China is fast becoming the ‘New-York’ in China. Bairoch (1988) has shown that the main difference between US cities and Chinese cities is that US were working primarily for the domestic market while Chinese cities target priority external markets.
4.6 High Living Standards
Urbanization contributes to the economic and social development of a country. Most countries with high rates of urbanization during the last decade have experienced economic growth. In addition an increasing number of cities have taken on significant roles in globalizing the economy, in terms of health care services, financial markets, trade and commerce. This has led to improvements in the living standards with consequent higher life expectancy to a considerable portion of the world’s population.
4.7 High Employment Opportunities
Cities have the ability to provide job opportunities all grades of people both skilled and unskilled. The incomes of local authorities are higher in cities than in the rural areas, so they can better fulfil their social obligations to the people. Property Tax was enacted to provide social welfare for city-dwellers and the poor, in general. In China for instance, the land reforms and corporate taxes were directed towards eradicating poverty.
4.8 Provision of Better Education
Cities foster greater educational opportunities to their dwellers just as improved education often leads to reduced birth rates. Thus, planned urbanization could help reduce population growth. The latest global census shows slower rates of population growth in many cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where overpopulation is most rampant. Obviously, people are better informed in cities than in rural areas.
5.0 PROBLEMS OF CITIES
Cities are an important segment of National and World Economic Development, challenges ranging from low energy efficiency to degraded environmental quality. The most crucial issues that face Nigerian cities include the following:
5.1 Environmental Problems
Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates. This is due to hard surfaces that are heated by
sunlight and channel rainwater into underground ducts. As a result, city weather is often hotter, windier and cloudier than the weather in surrounding areas.
Garbage and sewage are two other major problems of most cities in Nigeria. All the nooks and crannies of most Nigerian cities are covered with piles or heaps of garbage. Specifically, polythene (pure water bags) have taken over most places in the cities. Sewerages and drains are filled with refuse thus preventing waste and run-off water from discharging. This breeds poor sanitary conditions. Poor sanitation in densely populated cities in Nigeria is responsible for millions of deaths every year resulting from water-borne and other related diseases. Air pollution from internal combustion engines (factory machines, electricity generators and automobiles-“danfo and
molues”) is another serious environmental problem. It must be noted, however, - , Akure and the inner districts of
Abuja have attained relatively cleaner status lately while cities like Owerri ,Jos, previously acclaimed for their neatness
have degenerated environmentally.,
5.2 inadequate and Sub-standard Housing
According to the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) (1996) about 500 million dwellers are homeless or live in inadequate housing. The houses in cities are not only in short supply, they are poor in condition or generally sub-standard. The problem is getting worse as housing development is not keeping pace with the exploding
Homelessness is a problem in ‘more developed’ as well as in less developed countries. In Lagos, we see people living under the bridges. A trip to places like Idu, Karimo, Maraba, at the outskirts of Abuja, will reveal the deteriorated housing and environmental conditions people live in.
5.3 Population Explosion
Population explosion in cities threatens national economies. The United Nations reports that the ten most populated countries in the world will be in Asia, Latin America, and Africa by 2015. Nine of them will be in less developed countries (see table 1 below). Rapid urbanization is occurring as a result of un-abated rural-urban migration as well as the gradual transformation of rural areas to urban centres.
Table 1: Population of the 10 largest cities in the world by 2015
S/N City Country Population (millions)
1 Bombay India 27.4
2 Lagos Nigeria 24.4
3 Shanghai China 23.4
4 Jakarta Indonesia 21.2
5 Sao Paulo Brazil 20.8
6 Karachi Pakistan 20.6
7 Beijing China 19.4
8 Dhaka Bangladesh 19
9 Mexico City Mexico 18.8.
10 Tokyo Japan 28.7
Source: Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) (1996)
5.4 Transportation
There are several problems facing transportation systems in our cities such as inadequate parking spaces for vehicles and poor roads. Nigeria has become a dumping ground for used (‘tokunbo’) vehicles of all sizes. The unserviceable ones break down easily along the roads, causing traffic congestion. There are no rail systems connecting satellite towns and suburbs to the city centre. Even the existing ones are not working. Most Government interventions in the transportation system in the form of Mass Transit operations failed owing to a number of issues : a) the inability of the government to manage the scheme; b) absence of institutional frameworks such as maintenance, operation and monitoring of the schemes. Another problem facing transportation system in Nigerian urban centres is the inadequate utilization of the available resources such as In-land waterways in Lagos as well as other coastal cities and towns. Air transportation is unsafe owing to poor infrastructure and technology. These problems make networking and interconnectivity of cities difficult, the result being traffic congestion.
5.5 Poverty
Westendorif (undated) argues that a growing number of the world’s poorest people live in cities, in poor-quality housing on dangerous sites, lacking even basic services. In many countries, budgetary constraints, structural adjustment processes, increasing wealth inequalities, and lack of popular participation in governance are worsening the position of the urban poor. City development have focussed on political, social, and economic viability rather than aiming at increased access to adequate levels of basic services and healthy living and working conditions for all residents. The resultant effect is the creation of poverty in cities (see Table 2 and 3 showing the world’s cities classified according to Low Average Income and High Average Income countries, respectively). In Kano in the north, Abuja in the centre or Lagos in the south, poverty is visible in most Nigerian cities.
Table 2 Cities from Low Income countries
S/n City Country
1 Dares Salaam Tanzania
2 Lilongwe Malawi,
3 Dhaka Bangladesh,
4 Antananarivo Madagascar
5 Ibadan Nigeria
6 Delhi India
7 Nairobi Kenya
8 Beijing (Peking) China
9 Karachi Pakistan
Source: Centre for Human Settlements(Habitat) (1996)
Table 3 Cities from High Income countries
S/n City Country
1 London United Kingdom
2 Melbourne Australia
3 Amsterdam Netherlands
4 Vienna Austria
S Paris France
6 Toronto Canada
7 Washington, D.C. United States -
8 Stockholm Sweden
9 Tokyo Japan,
10 Helsinki Finland,
11 Munich Germany
12 Oslo Norway
Source: Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) (1996)
5.6 Inequitable Distribution of Infrastructure -.
It is visible in Nigeria cities where there is inequality in the distribution of infrastructure and social amenities. Some neighbourhoods may have electricity and water while others do not have such services.
5.7 Urban Ethnic Conflicts
Cities exhibit the origins, nature, and manifestation of the impact of ethnic, religious, or ethno-nationalist conflicts the world over. In the contemporary era of globalization which has challenged nation-states and national identities as legitimate source of authority, struggles over sovereignty and for recognition often unfold among sub-nationals. Since cities are ever more likely to draw and host populations of different ethnic and religious groups, conflicts often arise. This means that ethnic and ethno-national identity conflicts would be increasingly transferred to the Built Environment and local governing practices. The religious crises in Nigeria over the years originate and occur in cities rather than rural areas. They are more likely to manifest themselves in urban conflicts over the allocation of space, resources, and rights rather than over the grand projects of nation-state building.
5.8 Crime
Crime rate is higher in big cities than in smaller towns, and in urban than in rural areas. The social and economic costs of crime are greater for big city residents than for others. This can be attributed to increasingly impoverished inhabitants resident in restricted areas.
6.0 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CITIES
The development of modern cities should adhere to certain parameters to ensure a healthy place for living and working. These parameters include:
6.1 Fixed Transit (preferably rail, above and below ground)
In the development of cities there should be fixed transit, preferably rail, above and below ground, subways along all major travel routes; buses or trams on all secondary routes and water ways in coastal cities. Fixed Transit systems guide development and keep the streets busy. As development occurs around fixed-transit routes, it is easy to get around since most locations are looped into the networks thus bringing everything closer. More people us pedestrian sidewalks while businesses thrive on walking traffic, eliminating the need for vehicular traffic and associated parking problems. On the contrary, when transit is not fixed as with a bus route, commuting becomes cumbersome because everything is further apart making the use of cars inevitable. Most Nigerian cities are not healthy because they do not encourage pedestrian traffic.
Abuja does not meet this requirement, while the renewed Lagos Island may be said to be compliant.
6.2 Mixed-use and Mixed-income Neighbourhoods
Mixed-use neighbourhoods solve many urban ills. By intermingling commercial, residential, and civic functions in the same neighbourhoods, you reduce dependence on vehicular and automotive transport, since destination facilities are always close at hand. One can walk to the market, shopping mall, salon, library, bar, school college or university, administrative offices, etc within the same precinct. This means denser development is possible without reducing living spaces (by reducing street pace, space dedicated to the automobile, instead). It also means more tax money for more amenities and social programs, since streets do not pay tax in Nigeria while homes and businesses do. The mixed use concept has been applied successfully in Asian countries such as Kuala Lumpur, Osaka, Singapore, Bangkok and Jakarta. Recent developments in Accra, Cape Town and Addis Ababa are geared toward this trend.
6.3 Allow buildings of different age, condition, and size
The mix of old and new buildings provides an interesting city scape. Older buildings in poor condition provide the incubators for entrepreneurs to start businesses. In addition, they stand as historical monuments while newer buildings provide locations for the more established merchants and serve as magnets in a business district. The mix also serves to provide residential units of various sizes, condition and price making affording neighbourhoods with interesting economic and social choices while providing places for both the business owner and grocery clerk to live.
6.4 Provision of Residential accommodation within City centres.
Many cities have some areas where people live, where people shop and where people work. This leads to people moving en mass at different times of the day from one area to the other. Movement is triangular, in the morning to work, to the shopping area after work or on the weekends and home at night. This creates needless congestion; streets empty at some times and overcrowded at others. Lagos Island and Victoria Island are cases in point. When residential areas are spread throughout the city, many will choose to live near where they work, stores will locate nearer where people live while many small stores will serve to supplement or even replace larger ones. A case must be made for variety as in the provision of hostels and budget hotels for young and less financially endowed residents and visitors.
6.5 Public Squares, Green Areas in Neighbourhoods
We need to have places where people can be together; where we can linger if we feel so inclined; where we can enjoy the day or night and partake of the feeling of the community. This promotes communal bonding among city residents infuses the social content into city life. This has been achieved in Abuja in the development of green areas, neighbourhood parks, recreational posts and relaxation spots complemented by eateries and bars. Evidently, this has stemmed the exodus of residents from Abuja at weekends and extended social and business activities beyond the conventional “9 to 5”.
6.6 Encouragement of Migration in Cities
A city is more than just a collection of people. Cities are heterogeneous and serve as places where social relations and differences are constantly negotiated, shaped and exchanged. The internal divisions in a city are caused by external links. The networks concentrated in the city attract immigrants. As people immigrate, the newcomers bring along their histories, new networks or enforce existing ones. The city gives immigrants the opportunity to express their talents and the city benefits from their new ideas. A city is thus, an incubator of ideas.
6.7 Provision of Greenery
Trees and gardens save energy and money, give pleasure to people as well as living space to animals and birds. Trees ameliorate temperature extremes. They provide much needed shade in hot, sunny weather and their transpiration helps balance local temperatures. This idea has long been advocated by F L Wright in his Broad Acre city concept.
6.8 Provision of Farms within City Limits
The farther food is grown from town, the more it costs to transport into the city and normally the worse it is in terms of freshness and taste. Local farming means less fuel and road use, which is good for the earth and reduces need for taxes to support road infrastructure and fuel subsidies. Shorter transport time means food can ripen longer naturally, so it tastes better and is more nutritious. The necessity to fit farms into numerous smaller spaces in town means fewer, big agribusiness operations thriving on economies of scale. Instead you have a greater number of small producers resulting in a greater variety of food, more accommodation for local tastes and more competition (resulting in better products, services and lower prices, ceteris paribus). This practice promotes commercial organic farming, reduces stress on the earth and minimizes dependence on petroleum and petroleum products.
Urban farmers’ markets bear all this out, providing higher quality food than supermarkets, yet usually at lower prices. Provision could be made for the urban dwellers to grow vegetables, fruits and other basic natural food in their backyards.
6.9 Provision of Corner Shops
Shops opening onto sidewalks encourage pedestrian traffic. Pedestrians are more able to window-shop than commuters. Walking is good exercise and people who walk are more likely to meet or make friends or other social, even commercial, contacts. Corner-shops encourage pedestrian traffic.
6.10 Connectivity and Networking of Cities
Cities should be developed such that they are interconnected through networks of culture, economics, trade or history. For instance London and Tokyo are economically linked via the stock market. Connection means linking cities with cities, but also linking a city to its surroundings. Most cities are not self-sufficient and rely on produce from their surroundings. They need trade links and other connections for economic viability. Looking at networks it becomes possible to explain whether a city is developing or not. People are attracted to a particular city because of access to certain networks.
The Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers (NIESV) moved its National Secretariat to Abuja partly because of the enhanced access to government and other organisations plus anticipated networking which Lagos (the former location had lost). So it is with other businesses.
Banks and other financial institution are attracted to big cities such as Lagos, Kano, Port Harcourt because of the network of activities there. Networking creates business and social links and increases the creation of new possibilities within cities.
7.0 MANAGEMENT OF CITIES
The future of Nigerian cities depends on the management of the economy and politics. Poor Management promotes deterioration of urban living conditions. Urban poverty results because the Federal, States and Local governments do not plan adequately for population increases and fail to provide the required infrastructure, services and jobs. Consider the excruciating traffic congestion along the Victoria Island-Lekki Peninsula corridor owing to poor roads and allied infrastructure whereas the governments had every indication of the impending explosion in development along that axis which is easily the fastest-growing belt in Africa.
There are several approaches to the management of cities, which include the following:
7.1 Eradication of Poverty
A top priority in the management of cities in Nigeria will be the reduction or outright eradication of poverty. Most Nigerian cities reflect the inequalities in the country, with the vast majority living in slums and lacking access to good amenities and services such as drinking water, medical care and decent housing. Typical examples are the situations in Ajegunle in Lagos, Obiagu in Enugu, Idu and Karimu in Abuja.
However, Urban Renewal is not a call for planning the city all over again which may be too late. While it may be near impossible to clear cities of slums, what is needed is to collect refuse on regular basis and maintain security, allocate adequate land to industry, maintain crumbling roads and buildings. Emphasis should be on improved sewage and overall sanitation and hygiene. The recent summary demolition of slums in Abuja without Due Process and alternative settlement or compensation was a regressive step towards the perpetuation of poverty not to mention the numerous lives lost directly during such demolitions or indirectly in the aftermath of same.
Estate Surveyors and Valuers should have been engaged to advise and guide the government on all pertinent aspects of such far- reaching policies before and during implementation. The un-warranted misery visited upon the residents could have been avoided or mitigated in the least while achieving the laudable objectives of the exercise. It is hoped that other governments contemplating similar exercises will avoid this pitfall.
7.2 Urban Gentrification and Renewal
Urban gentrification is the immigration of middle class people into recently renewed urban areas. It is a phenomenon in which low-cost, physically deteriorated neighbourhoods undergo physical renovation with an influx of wealthier residents who may displace the prior residents. A building is like a piece of machinery or a motor vehicle it depreciates in value over time. Parts wear out; the roof may need to be replaced after years of exposure to the elements; the building style may go out of fashion; technological changes such as new standards in electrical or plumbing may evolve. Therefore, gentrification or urban renewal of our decaying cities will bring renewed investment in physically deteriorating neighbourhoods leading to improved access to lending capital for property owners (as their property values increase) and increased revenues for governments (from enhanced property taxes). This is largely the case in Lagos Island, Calabar, Uyo and lately , Onitsha in Anambra State. However, proper advice must be sought from qualified Estate Surveyors and Valuers if the full potentials of such urban renewal projects are to be realized.
7.3 Sustainability of Cities
The concept of Sustainable Cities deals with the processes needed to make urban regions more sustainable. These include questions on planning, democracy, environmental justice, and participation. The other is concerned with urban form and design, technological change and infrastructure. Both deal with change geared towards the redirection of urban metabolism. Urban sustainability will strengthen the contributions of cities and towns in Nigeria towards economic growth, social development and the alleviation of poverty.
7.4 The Creative and Social Innovation of Cities
Creative cities are engines of regional and national development. This depends on the innovation and creativity of the people. To be creative, cities must offer a vibrant environment, cultural amenities and career choices sufficient to attract groups with a repository of talents to build creative industries. In so doing, creative cities secure comparative advantages over other cities. In this regard, there is a need for a new urban agenda that focussing on innovation and cultural revitalization of Nigerian cities.
7.5 Provision of Adequate Housing
The need for adequate, quality housing for city dwellers cannot be over-emphasised. Innovation and creativity of the people cannot be realised under bridges, Vat road interchanges or life-threatening, dilapidated homes. Hundsalz (1996) one said “Only co-operation between the public and private sector, with government support, will help to overcome existing barriers and mobilize necessary investment flows in the housing sector”. It has been established that lack of financial resources and technical expertise, as well as ineffective housing regulations have stunted housing growth in Nigeria.
7.6 Investment in Urban and Inter-city Infrastructure
Cities ought to be decentralized according to the well-known subsidiary principle. We must invest more in urban and inter-city infrastructure, improve the living quality to make our cities more attractive; promote metropolitan regions or urban corridors associating cities, towns and rural areas and favour intra-regional synergies. It is only then that the current process of “globalization” (more local politics, more global economy), reduction of poverty and sufficient concern for the environment can be achieved in our cities.
7.7 Life-cycle Costing and Engineering
Poor maintenance of infrastructure in Nigeria could be attributed to one- time costing of the infrastructure prior to or during the time of construction. There are no provisions for recurrent expenditure for the maintenance of the infrastructure. There is the need to have sustainable life-cycle costing and engineering on all infrastructural developments in Nigerian cities.
7.8 Private partnership Organization V
The major challenge facing cities and the people who live in them is to make the city work. The cities are engines of economic prosperity of the nation and have the potential to transform the lives of the people especially the low-income dwellers. To engage in development of the city the government alone cannot do it. All stakeholders should be partners in the management of cities. There is the need to encourage the formation of Neighbourhood Associations and Non Governmental Organisations (NGO) as partners in the management of cities. This experiment is yielding considerable results in Lagos State while Community Vigilante Groups have for long been the bastion of security in most states in the eastern states.
7.9 Land Information Systems
The theory and application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Land Information Systems (LIS) should be integrated into the development and management of our cities. This will afford the managers and policy makers the opportunities to identify areas of priority in infrastructure needs. GIS is a veritable tool in the Management of infrastructure in urban areas and in efficient Land Administration. The commendable pioneering example of the Federal Capital Development Territory in this respect has been emulated by states such as Enugu, Abia and Lagos while the Federal Ministry of Environment ,Housing and Urban Development has advanced with it’s comparable FELIS project.
7.10 Land Taxation
This is one potential that has not been fully harnessed in Nigerian cities. Governments at all tiers have not utilized this huge opportunity of raising funds for the development and management of cities. Property-based taxes are more efficient to administer and more difficult to evade owing to the visible physical attributes of land. Various seminars and workshops have been organized by the NIESV on this vital subject but the recommendations are yet to be fully implemented by any government. The resources for managing cities are internal rather than external. The underlying funds in Real Property in our cities can be equated to the money generated from VAT in some cities such as Lagos, Abuja, Kano, Onitsha and Port Harcourt and could finance the development and management of the cities through without recourse to other sources.
7.11 Good Governance
Good governance is needed for sustainable urban development. It requires stronger roles for citizen groups, community organizations and NGOs to participate in governance. It must be said though, that good governance cannot thrive in the pervading atmosphere of corruption foisted on the nation by recent administrations.
7.12 Adequate Security
The rapid growth of cities and the cramming of their increasingly impoverished inhabitants into restricted areas has undermined sociability and increased violence and crime. Evidently, crime levels are higher in big cities than in smaller towns; in urban than in rural areas. The social and economic costs of crime are greater for big city residents than for others. Armed Rapid Response teams have become a feature of security in especially in the high-brow areas of our major cities while Vigilante groups of all sorts have virtually assumed the duties of the Police. Concerted efforts should be made to improve security of lives and property in our cities.
7.13 Legislation
Development and management of cities should be tied to adequate legislation and regulatory framework. For a city to assume and maintain its role as an engine of economic and socio-political development, the legal framework of such a city should be reinforced. The Land Use Act,Urban and Regional Planning Decree, Building regulations, Tax laws and other pertinent legislation should be amended to reflect the flexibility of a city and its dynamism. Memoranda have been submitted time and again by the NIESV to the Federal Government and various State Governments.
8.0 ROLE OF ESTATE SURVEYORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF NIGERIAN CITIES
8.1 Infrastructural Management
City Infrastructure has some essential features: it determines what activities are possible in a city, and is very expensive. Infrastructure is indispensable. It contributes to the well-being and quality of life of households and is vital for industry, forming part of the production process in the same way as fixed capital. Infrastructure is part of the collective heritage of a city. The occasional utility breakdown or strike by Labour organisations and other public service organs are reminders of our dependence of our cities on the proper functioning of infrastructure. The provision of infrastructure in Nigeria has never really been the problem but the management and maintenance of same. The situation is exacerbated by the abysmal state of electric power in the country.
Decaying infrastructure is a sign of decaying city. Estate Surveyors and Valuers equipped with the requisite management skill should provide a vigorous strategy towards the efficient management of our city and national infrastructure.
8.2 Development Appraisal
Estate Surveyors and Valuers, as development appraisers, should analyze the pros and cons of city development. The appraisal of development provides developers the framework to determine the viability of development projects within our cities. Evidence has shown that the abandoned projects in our cities are traceable to lack of comprehensive feasibility and viability appraisal prior to execution. Development Appraisal should be integrated into the development policies and programs of our cities to improve the overall well-being of residents.
8.3 Land and Property-based Taxation
Efficient land taxation is a sure way to raise funds for the development and management of our cities. Estate Surveyors and Valuers are trained and professionally equipped for the assessment, collection and administration of taxes such as Tenement Rates, Capital Gains Tax, Estate Duties etc. Their advisory role is crucial to the success of Land and Property-based Taxes and could have saved the Lagos State Government the huge time and resources lost in its poorly conceived and executed Land Use Charge.
8.4 Land Use planning
Estate Surveyors and Valuers should collaborate with Urban Planners to prepare comprehensive plans and develop policies to help cities and communities achieve visions and objectives. They should assist in the formulation and implementation of Land Use controls such as zoning regulations, building regulations, etc to guide and secure the optimum development of Nigerian cities.
8.5 Environmental Management /Valuation
Estate Surveyors and Valuers with the requisite training and skills should engage in the management and protection of natural resources and the built environment in order to make our cities sustainable. There is a need to measure the impact of development on the physical environment of our cities as well as to develop policies to mitigate the negative impact of such development. Such impact is best measured by valuation of the environment. Valuation of the environment would remind us that the environment is not a free asset.
The Faculty of Environment of the NIESV must be strengthened to provide Estate Surveyors and Valuers with the capacity and tools to meet this emerging challenge.
8.8 Valuation of Infrastructure ,etc
The monetary worth of cities’ assets: infrastructure (roads, drains, water supply, electricity and telephone, cables, pipes etc), industrial plants, cultural heritage sites, buildings, household properties and many others are needed at some time for the purpose of privatization or commercialisation, compulsory acquisition, merging, purchase or sales, mortgage, balance sheet and many others. These advisory services are provided by Estate Surveyors and Valuers.
8.9 Property and Facility Management
Real property is the flesh that binds up the city. Buildings depreciate over time although their values may be appreciating. Proper Property and Facility Management prevents decay and dilapidation of buildings and physical structures thus averting decay of cities. Effective management of real property in cities by Estate Surveyors and Valuers will bring renewed investment in physically deteriorating neighbourhoods and increased income to property owners thereby enhancing their contribution to city, national, regional and global economic development.
8.10 Financing Development and Management of Cities.
Financing and operating urban infrastructure pose a fourfold problem: where to find a variety of resources to install and maintain facilities without overburdening public budgets; how to manage these facilities more efficiently and with greater consumer satisfaction; how to ensure that infrastructure is paid for at its real costs; and how to take environmental considerations fully into account when installing and operating infrastructure. Estate Surveyors and Valuers can provide answers to these crucial questions.
9.0 Conclusion.
The logical conclusion from these excursions and discussions is that cities are the engines of innovation, growth and export in the global economy in spite of several problems surveyed. They play increasingly important roles in linking their local resources to the global networks.
In order for Nigerian Cities to achieve sustained economic growth, restore social equilibrium, ensure the efficient functioning of public facilities and services, and provide attractive living and working environments for their dwellers, professionals of the Built Environment should be consulted in the Development and Management of our Cities. Specifically, Estate Surveyors and Valuers in the Public and the Private sectors have the expertise to advise in the area of Infrastructure Management, Land Taxation, Property and Facility Management, Land Use Planning, Development Appraisal, Environmental Management, Valuation, Financing of the Development and Management of Cities. Relevant authorities and entities must avail themselves of their services for the realization of the comprehensive goals, objectives and purposes of Nigerian cities.
Thank you for your attention.
E. OSITAOKOUI, B.Sc,FNIVS,RSV,SCV
2nd Vice-President, NIESV
E-mail: ositaokolil@yahoo.com
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